The activities of Military Missions of the Leading European States in the Allied Armies during the First World War, 1914-1918: Generalization of the Problem
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
The most recent scientific achievements in the field of military history are related to the use of new methods developed by leading historians of the late XX - early XXI centuries. This allowed expanding the understanding of an important scientific area of military history – the borrowing of the latest army technologies and methods using foreign military missions. Scholars who studied the evolution of military affairs during the First World War did not actively use the method of generalization and comparativism when analyzing the activities of foreign military missions in 1914 to 1918. As a rule, only specific military missions to individual countries were studied, which led to fragmented knowledge about the history of missions. For example, a number of studies have focused on the activities of German and French military missions in the armies of their allies during the First World War. However, no generalizing work has yet been created that would focus on such a complex phenomenon as the adoption of various areas of military innovation with the help of foreign military experts. As a rule, scholars have focused their attention on the impact of foreign military professionals on armies in which officers performed their duties as part of missions. The activities of the missions themselves remained only a part of the general problem of studying the First World War during 1914 to 1918.
The study is devoted to generalizing the problems of military missions in the context of large-scale hostilities of 1914-1918, in particular, the attention is focused primarily on comparing the activities of the German military mission (in the Ottoman Empirein 1913 to 1918) and the French military mission (in Romania in 1916 to 1918). The activities of other French, German, and Russian military missions, as well as Italian, Dutch, and Swedish gendarmerie missions in the armed forces of the Allied powers during the 1914 to 1918 war are analyzed. The method of comparison and generalization of vast military experience, which is relevant for the modern military history space, is involved in the scientific discourse.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
Grandhomme, J.-N. (1999). Le general Berthelot et l'action de la France en Roumanie et en Russie meridionale (1916-1918): genese; aspects diplomatiques, militaires et culturels avec leurs incidences; prolongements et perspectives, Lille. Atelier national de Reproduction des Theses. Service historique de l'armee de terre. [In French].
Grant, J. A. (2003). The Arms Trade in Eastern Europe, 1870–1914. Girding for Battle: The Arms Trade in a Global Perspective, 1815–1940. J.A. Grant, D.J. Stoker. Connecticut London: Westport, Hardcover, R. pp. 25–42. [In English].
Storz, D. (1992). Kriegsbild und Rustungvor 1914 Europaische Landstreitkrafte vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg. Berlin; Bonn: Mittler. [In German].
Yorulmaz, N. (2014). Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire before World War I. London: I. B. Tauris. [In English].
Masaya, N. (2018). Les missions militaires francaises au Japon entre 1867 et 1889. These de doctorat del’Universite Sorbonne: Paris. Universite Sorbonne. [In French].
Tanchev, I. (2008). Blgari v chuzhdestranni voennouchebni zavedeniya (1878-1912). Sofiya, IK “Gutenberg”. [In Bulgarian].
Stoјiћ, B. (2016). Francuske voјne misiјe u Balkanskim ratovima (1912–1913). Voјnoistoriјski glasnik, 1, ss. 26–45. [In Serbian].
Falko, S. A. (2021). Diyalnisty evropejskih vijskovo-instruktorskih misij u krayinah Pivdenno-Shidnoyi Yevropi na pochatku XX st. Problemy vsesvitnoyi istoriyi: naukovy zhurnal, 1 (13), ss. 24-53. [In Ukrainian].
Torrey, G. E. (2001). Henri Mathias Berthelot: soldier of France, defender of Romania. Portland: Center for Romanian Studies. [In English].
Stojic, B. (2017). French military missions in Serbia during 1915. The Great War in 1915. Edited by Dr. Dalibor Denda, Dr. Mario Christian Ortner. Heeresgeschichtliches Museum/Militarhistorisches Institut, Strategic Research Institute Belgrade, pp. 256-276. [In English].
Wallach, J. (1976). Anatomie einer Militarhilfe. Die Preuisch-deutschen Militarmissionen in der Turkei 1835-1919. Dusseldorf. [In German].
Erickson, J. E. (2007). Ottoman Army effectiveness in World War I: a comparative study. New York, NY: Routledge. [In English].
Uyar, M. (2019). Sanders askeri yardim misyonu (1913-1918). Cumhuriyet Tarihi Arastirmalari Dergisi15 (30), Yil 15, Sayi 30, ss. 29-84. [In Turkish].
Uyar, M. (2021). The Ottoman Army andthe First World War.Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge. [In English].
Grusshaber, G. (2018). The “German Spirit” in the Ottoman and Turkish Army, 1908-1938: A history of military knowledge transfer Hardcover. Berlin: WalterdeGruyter GmbH. [In English].
Pavlov, A.Yu., Gelton, F. (2019). V kabinetah i okopah. Francuzskie voennye missii v Rossii v gody Pervoj mirovoj vojny. SPb.: RHGA. [In Russian].
Bordeaux, P.-E. (1930). Trois francaises en Grece: Fabvier, Vosseur, Eydoux. L'Acropole: revue du monde hellenique. Tome V, № 17–18, pp. 47–78. [In French].
Schramm, T. (1987). Francuskie misje wojskowe w panstwach Europy Srodkowej 1919-1938. Poznan: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM. [In Рolish].
Cronin, S. (1996). An experiment in military modernization: constitutionalism, political reform and the Iranian Gendarmerie, 1910-21. Middle Eastern Studies,Vol. 32, № 3, July, pp. 106-138. [In English].
Ruis, E. (2013). Vechtmissie Nederlandse militairen in Albanie 1913-1914. Just Publishers. [In Dutch].
Pasqualini, M. G. (2001). Missioni dei Carabinieri all'estero. Vol. I: 1855-1935. Ente Ed. per l'Arma dei Carabinieri. [Online]. Available from: https://www.carabinieri.it/arma/arma-all'estero/proiezione-internazionale/vol-i-1855---1935/1912---1923-(grecia)/in-grecia-pag-2 [In Italian].
Fremeaux, J. (2016). Les interventions militaires francaises au Levant pendant la Grande Guerre. Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, 2. № 262, pp. 49-72. [In French].
Burke, T. (2016). An instrument of British meddling in and muddling out of Iran during and after the First World War – The South Persia Rifles, 1916 to 1921. Royal Dublin Fusiliers Association website. [Online]. Available from: https://www.greatwar.ie/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/South-Persia-Rifles.pdf [In English].
Keene, J. D. (1998). Uneasy alliances: French military intelligence and the American army during the first world war. Intelligence and National Security.Volume 13, Issue 1. Knowing Your Friends Intelligence Inside Alliances and Coalitions From 1914 to the Cold War. Edited by Martin S. Alexander, pp. 18-36. [In English].
Berthelot, H.-M. (1987). General Henri Berthelot and Romania: Memoires et correspondence 1916-1919. Boulderand New York: East European Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press. [In English].
Winogradsky General (1926). (Aleksandr Nikolaevich Vinogradsky). La Guerre sur le front oriental en Russie en Roumanie. Mis au point et commente par le general Malleterre. Soft cover. General (Pierre Marie Gabriel) Malleterre. 1st Edition. Soft cover. Octavo. [In French].
Liman von Sanders, O. K. (1919). Funf Jahre Turkei. Berlin: Scherl. [In German].
Uyar, M. (2022). Binbasi Abdurrauf’un Harp Gunlukleri; Osmanli Genelkurmayi’nda Alman Komutanlarin Emrinde. Istanbul: Is Bankasi Kultur Yayinlari. [In Turkish].
Sarrou, A. (2011). Le Capitaine Sarrou un officier francais au service de l’empire ottoman: Dix ans sejour en Turquie ou lareorganisation de la gendarmerie ottomane 1904-1914. Gorgias Press. [In French].
Troubridge, E. (2017). The Forgotten Admiral: extracts from the diary of Sir Ernest Troubridge: (1915-1919). 1st ed., Radio Television of Serbia; The Republic of Serbia Ministryof Defence – “Odbrana“ Media Centre; The British Embassy. [In English].
Potapov, N. M. (2003). Ruski voјni agent u Crnoј Gori. t. 1, Izvјeshtaјi, raporti, telegrami, pisma: 1902–1915 g., Podgorica: Istoriјski institut Crne Gore; Moskva: Institut zarusku istoriјu RAN, Ruski drzhavni voјno-istoriјski arhiv. [In Serbian].
Popa, V. (2010). Muzeul Militar Național 'Regele Ferdinand I.': Misiunea generalului Coandă la Stavka, 1916-1917 (The mission of general Coandă in the War Head Quarter, 1916-1917), Bucharest: Editura Militară. [In Romanian].
Knox, A. (1921). With the Russian army, 1914-1917: being chiefly extracts from the diary of a military attache.Volume 2. New York: E. P. Duttonand Company. [In English].
Goltz, R. Graf von der. (1920). Meine Sendung in Finnland und im Baltikum. Leipzig: K.F. Koehler. [In German].
Vinogradskij, A. N. (1919). Operacii na Rumynskom fronte s yanvarya po mart 1917 g. 1919 g. GARF. FR-6260. Op. 1 D. 2 l. 2-34. [In Russian].
Mannergejm, K. G. (2024). Spogadi: u 2 t. Kyiv: Nash Format, T. 1. [In Ukrainian].
Kress Von Kressenstein, F. F. (2001). Meine Mission im Kaukasus. Verlag “Samschoblo“. Tbilissi. [In German].
Delaroche, J-M. (2016). Droit d’ingérence et concurrence militaire internationale en Méditerranée orientale: les puissances européennes et le maintien de l’ordre dans les Balkans, du traité de Berlin (1878) à la Première Guerre mondiale: Mémoire pour le diplôme de docteur en spécialités historique. Université Charles de Gaulle. Lille. [In French].
Simou, B. (1995). Les reformes militaires au maroc de 1844 a 1912. Rabat: Universitéde Mohammed V, Faculté des lettres et dessciences humaines. [In French].
Nunn, F. M. (1983). Yesterday’s Soldiers: European Military Professionalism in South America, 1890–1940. University of Nebraska Press. [In English].
Vrangel, P. N. (2004). Zapiski. Noyabr 1916 – noyabr 1920. Glavnokomanduyushij. Moskva: Vargius. [In Russian].
Fedorov, V. G. (1939). Oruzhejnoe delo na grani dvuh epoh: (raboty oruzhejnika 1900-1935 gg.): Oruzhejnoe delo v pervuyu imperialisticheskuyu vojnu. Moskva: Artillerijskaya akademiya, Ch. 2. [In Russian].
Autric, R. (2007). La rivalitefranco-americaine: l’instructiondessoldatsamericainsen France (1917-1918). Revue historique des armees, 246, pp. 22-32. [Online]. Available from: http://journals.openedition.org/rha/2363 [In French].
Vagts, A. (1967). The Military Attache. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [In English].
Bashanov, M., Ilyas, K. (2018). Rus Genelkurmay Belgelerinde II. Abdülhamid ve Osmanlı Ordusu. Zeytinburnu Belediyesi Yayınları. İstanbul. [In Turkish].
Wiest, A. (2013). The Reluctant Pupil. The American Army on the Western Front, 1917-18. World War I Companion. Edited by Matthias Strohn, Gary D. Sheffield, Michael S. Neiberg. Bloomsbury: Osprey, pp. 195-210. [In English].
Uyar, M., Guvenc, S. (2022). A tale of two military missions: The Germans in the Ottoman Empire and the Americans in the Republic of Turkey. War & Society, 41(2), pp. 85-106. [In English].
Uyar, M., Varoglu K. (2008). In Search of Modernity and Rationality. The Evolution of Turkish Military Academy Curricula in a Historical Perspective. Armed Forces & Society, 35(1), pp. 180-202. [In English].
Goya, M. (2014). L'Invention de la guerre moderne :Du pantalon rouge au char d'assaut 1871–1918. Tallandier. [In French].
Erickson, E. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Praeger, Westport, Conn. [In English].
Derou, J. (1987). Les relations franco-portugaises (1910-1926). Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne. [Online]. Available from: https://books.openedition.org/psorbonne/51938#anchor-toc-1-9 [In French].