Батько й син аль-Асади: спільні й відмінні риси державної політики
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Анотація
Сирійська президентська династія аль-Асадів є класичним прикладом спадкової диктатури. При цьому державна політика Хафеза аль-Асада і його сина Башара має між собою більше відмінного, ніж спільного.
Алавіт Х. аль-Асад узурпував державну владу Сирії завдяки власним зусиллям і здібностям. Внаслідок сукупності суспільно-політичних і соціально-економічних реформ він перетворив Сирію на державу страху, котра забезпечувала тим, хто її боїться соціальну мобільність і захищеність від злиднів. Водночас, суніти, котрі відмовлялися від політизації ісламу, могли сповідувати свою релігію і займати високі державні посади, а курди, котрі погоджувалися на арабізацію – реалізуватися у бізнесі, бюрократичному апараті чи релігійних структурах. Окрім цього, Х. аль-Асад, шляхом втручання у внутрішні справи Лівану, перетворив Сирію з політичного об’єкту на регіональний політичний суб’єкт, що імпонувало сирійцям.
Б. аль-Асад, котрий отримав президентську владу від батька, не зміг стати його повноцінною заміною. Разом із владою він дістав низку соціально-економічних викликів. Вони загрожували можливості держави забезпечувати населення необхідною кількістю «хліба в обмін на свободу» і вимагали термінового реагування. Б. аль-Асад по суті відмовився піти торованим шляхом поміркованої політичної й економічної лібералізації країни. Він надуживав державним «батогом» щоб приборкати демократичну опозицію та курдський національний рух. Водночас, Б. аль-Асад з тактичних міркувань загравав з сунітськими ісламістами. Нарешті, його провальна ліванська політика стала початком кінця сирійської регіональної суб’єктності.
Громадянська війна, котра стала наслідком державної політики Б. аль-Асада, нічому його не навчила. Зрештою, він віддався на милість іноземних покровителів в особі РФ та Ірану, перетворившись на їхню маріонетку. Слабкість його владних позицій виключає можливість подальшого продовження президентської династії аль-Асадів.
Завантаження
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Ця робота ліцензується відповідно до Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Посилання
Stavnyuk, V.V. (2022). Istoriya Davn'oyi Hretsiyi. Navchal'nyy posibnyk dlya studentiv vyshchykh navchal'nykh zakladiv [A history of Ancient Greece. The study guide for the students of the higher educational institutions]. Chernivtsi: “Misto”. [In Ukrainian].
Somoza family. Wikipedia. [Online]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somoza_family [In English].
Duvalier dynasty. Wikipedia. [Online]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duvalier_dynasty [In English].
Kim family (North Korea). Wikipedia. [Online]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_family_(North_Korea) [In English].
Ilham Aliyev. Wikipedia. [Online]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev [In English].
Zelinskyi, A.L. (2023).Livans'ka Respublika u 2005-2023 rr.: zdobutky Kedrovoyi revolyutsiyi ta spadshchyna syriys'koyi okupatsiyi (Ch. 1–2) [The Republic of Lebanon during 2005-2023: the achievements of Cedar revolution and a heritage of the syrian occupation (P. 1–2)]. Problemy vsesvitn'oyi istoriyi [Problems of World History], 1-2, pp. 176–195, 114–136. [In Ukrainian].
Akhmedov, V.M., Isayev, V.A., Filonik, A.O. (eds). (1997). Siriyskaya Arabskaya Respublika [The Syrian Arab Republic]. Moskva: Institut izucheniya Izrailya i Blizhnego Vostoka. [In Russian].
Akhmedov, V.M. (2005). Siriya pri Bashare Asade. Regional’nyy opyt modernizatsii v usloviyakh vneshney nestabil’nosti [Syria under Basharal-Asad. Reginal experience of modernisation under the conditions of external instability]. Moskva: Institut vostokovedeniya RAN. [In Russian].
Pir-Budagova, E.P. (2015). Istoriya Sirii XX vek [A history of Syria. XX century]. Moskva: Institut vostokovedeniya RAN. [In Russian].
Matveyev, I.A. (2020). Siriya v konflikte [Syria in the Conflict]. Moskva: Institut vostokovedeniya RAN. [In Russian].
Ma'oz, M., Yaniv, A. (1986). Syria under Assad: Domestic Constraints and Regional Risks. London; New York: Routledge; Taylor &. Francis Group. [In English].
Ma'oz, M. (1988). Asad, the Sphinx of Damascus: A Political Biography. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. [In English].
Seale, P. (1989). Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press. [In English].
Zisser, E. (1998). Decision Making in Asad’s Syria. Washington (DC): The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. [In English].
Lesh, D.W. (2005). The New Lion of Damascus: Bashar al-Asad and Modern Syria. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. [In English].
McHugo, J. (2014). Syria: A History of the Last Hundred Years. 2nded. New York; London: The New Press. [In English].
Axon, A., Hewitt, S. (2018). Syria 1975/76-2018. Leiden; Boston: Brill. [In English].
Dawisha, A.I. (1978). Syria under Asad, 1970-1978. The centres of Power. Government and Opposition, 3, pp. 341–354. [In English].
Koszinowski, Th. (1985). Die Krise der Baath-Herrschaft und die Role Assad bei der Sicherung der Macht. Orient, 4, pp. 549–571. [In German].
Zisser, E. (1994). Asad of Syria – The Leader and the image. Orient, 2, pp. 247–260. [In English].
Zisser, E. (2003). Does Bashar al-Assad Rule Syria? Middle East Quartely, 1, pp. 15–23. [In English].
Perthes, V. (1997). The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. [In English].
Perthes, V. (2006). Syria under Bashar al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change. London; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. [In English].
van Dam, N. (2011). The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society Under Asad and the Ba’th Party. 4th ed. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. [In English].
Rais, F.R. (2004). Syria under Bashar al Assad: a profile of power. Strategic Studies, 3, pp. 144–168. [In English].
Becker, C. (2005/2006). Strategies of Power Consolidation in Syria Under Bashar al-Asad: Modernizing Control Over Resources. The Arab Studies Journal,2/1, pp. 65–91. [In English].
Wikas, S. (2007). Battling the Lion of Damascus: Syria’s Domestic Opposition, and the Asad Regime. Washington (DC): The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. [Online]. Available from: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/media/3488?disposition=inline [In English].
Joya, A. (2007). Syria’s Transition, 1970-2005: from Centralization of the State to Market Economy. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria / ed. P. Zarembka. Leeds: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 163–201. [In English].
Buchs, A. (2009). The resilience of authoritarian rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad. GIGA Working Paper, 97, pp. 1–36. [In English].
Ziadeh, R. (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: The Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. [In English].
(2011). Agriculture and Reform in Syria / ed. R. Hinnebusch. Boulder (CO): University of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies; Lynne Rienner Publishers. [In English].
Nagaichuk, V.I. (2016). Syriys’ka kryza: istorychni vytoky, peredumovy, prychyny (ch. I-II) [The syrian crisis: the historical roots, the preconditions, the reasons (P. I–II]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 10–11, pp. 12–15, 41–43. [In Ukrainian].
Ilhan, N. (2019). Opening a historical context to the roots of civil war in Syria. Social transformations and globalization / ed. K. Di Yarbakirlioglu. Ankara: Iksad Publications, pp. 161–179. [In English].
Böttcher, A. (1998). Syrische Religionspolitik unter Asad. Freiburg: Arnold-Bergstrasser-Institut. [In German].
Zisser, E. (2005). Syria, the Ba'th Regime and the Islamic Movement: Stepping on a New Path? The Muslim World, 95, pp. 43–65. [In English].
Lefevre, R. (2013). Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. [In English].
Pierret, Th. (2013). Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [In English].
McDowall, D. (1998). The Kurds of Syria. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project. [In English].
Yildiz, K. (2005). The Kurds in Syria: the forgotten people. London ; Ann arbor (MI): Pluto Press. [In English].
Lowe, R. The Syrian Kurds: A People Discovered. Middle East Program for Chatham House. [Online]. Available from: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/ Middle%20East/bpsyriankurds.pdf [In English].
Tejel, J. (2009). Syria’s Kurds: history, politics and society: transl. from french. London-New York: Routledge. [In English].
Tejel, J. (2021). The Kurdish Question in Syria, 1946-2019. The Cambridge History of the Kurds / Ed. H. Bozarslan, C. Gunes, V. Yadirgi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 436–457. [In English].
Gunter, M.M. (2014). Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [In English].
Schott, A.-S. (2017). The kurds of Syria. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Defence College. [In English].
Schmidinger, Th. (2018). Rojava: Revolution, War and the Future of Syria’s Kurds. London: Pluto Press. [In English].
Balanche, F. (2018). Sectarianism in Syria’s Civil War: ageopoliticalstudy. Washington (DC): The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. [In English].
Mazur, O.A. (2019). Kurdskiy vopros v politicheskom konflikte v Sirii [The kurdish question in a political conflict in Syria]. Moskva: Institut Blizhnego Vostoka. [In Russian].
Lee, S.C. (2019). Minority Communities in Times of Conflict: Civil War in Lebanon and Syria: Diss... PhD. Evanston (IL): NorthWestern University. [In English].
Thompson, E.V. (2002). Will Syria Have to Withdraw from Lebanon? Middle East Journal, 1, pp. 72–93. [In English].
Fisk, R. (2005). Lebanese Are United under Flag of the “Cedars Revolution”. The Independent. [Online]. Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/ lebanese-are-united-under-flag-of-the-cedars-revolution-526909.html [In English].
Sfeir, A. (2005). Liban : les trahisons du 14 mars. Etudes, March, pp. 153–160. [In French].
Volovich, A.A. (2005). Livan i Siriya posle Khariri: ispytaniye na prochnost’ [Lebanon and Syria after Hariri: the crash test]. Blizhniy Vostok i sovremennost’ [The Near East and the present], 25, pp. 273–309. [In Russian].
Harris, W.W. (2005). Bashar al-Assad’s Lebanon Gamble. Middle East Quarterly, Summer, pp. 33–44. [In English].
Haddad, S. (2005). The Lebanese Parliamentary Elections of 2005. The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, 33, pp. 305–331. [In English].
Blanford, N. (2006). Killing Mr Lebanon. The Assasination of Rafik Hariri and its impact on the Middle East. London: Tauris. [In English].
Zisser, E. (2006). Lebanon – the Cedar Revolution – Between Continuity and Change. Orient, 4, pp. 460–483. [In English].
Jaafar, R., Stephan, M.J. (2009). Lebanon’s Independence Intifada: How an Unarmed Insurrection Expelled Syrian Forces. Civilian Jihad. Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization and Governance in the Middle East / ed. N.J. Stephan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 169-184. [In English].
Phares, W. (2010). The Coming Revolution: Struggle for Freedom in the Middle East. New York: Threshold Editions. [In English].
Hirst, D. (2010). Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East. Sydney: ReadHowYouWant.com. [In English].
El-Husseini, R. (2012). Pax Syriana: Elite Politics in Postwar Lebanon. 2nd ed. Syracuse (NY): Syracuse University Press. [In English].
Naba, R. (1999). Rafic Hariri, Un homme d'affaires premier minister. Paris: L'Harmattan. [In French].
Naba, R. (2011). Hariri de père en fils, hommes d'affaires et premiers ministres. Paris: L'Harmattan. [In French].
Pakradouni, K. (2012). Years of Resistance: The Mandate of Émile Lahood, the former President of Lebanon. Reading: Garnet Publishing. [In English].
Horobets', I., Martynov, A. (2011). Syriys’kyy hordiyiv vuzol [The Syrian Gordian knot]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 10, pp. 30–33. [In Ukrainian].
Zin’ko, S. (2011). Syriys'kyy politychnyy pas'yans [The syrian political patience]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 11–12, pp. 37–39. [In Ukrainian].
Zin’ko, S. (2012). Syriys’ke protystoyannya v konteksti rehional'nykh transformatsiy [The syrian confrontation in a context of the regional transformations]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 8, pp. 20–25. [In Ukrainian].
Subkh, M. (2011). Syriya: tunel’ bez svitla v kintsi [Syria: the tunnel without the light in the end]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 11–12, pp. 40–43. [In Ukrainian].
Alzamalkani, M.A. (2015). Syria: why is the arab spring turning into a long winter: Diss... PhD. St Andrews: St Andrews University. [In English].
Phillips, C. (2016). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. [In English].
Glass, C. (2016). Syria Burning: A Short History of a Catastrophe. London: Verso. [In English].
Veysel, K. (2016). The Role of the Military in Syrian Politics and the 2011 Uprising. Insight Turkey, 2, pp. 109-128. [In English].
Volovych, O. (2016). RF i SShA u Syriyi: nepereborni rozbizhnosti [RF and USA in Syria: the insuperable disagreements]. Zovnishni spravy [Foreign Affairs], 10, pp. 6-11. [In Ukrainian].
van Dam, N. (2017). Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria. London; New York: I.B. Tauris. [In English].
Akhmedov, V.M. (2018). Siriyskoye vosstaniye: istoriya, politika, ideologiya [Syrian Uprising: history, politics, ideology]. Moskva: Institut vostokovedeniya RAN. [In Russian].
Hinnebusch, R., Saouli, A. (eds). (2019). The war for Syria: Regional and International Dimensions of the Syrian Uprising. London; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. [In English].
Çakmak, C. (2019). Phasing the Syrian Crisis: from Peaceful Conflicts to Internationalized Conflict. Dealing with Terrorism: Empirical and Normative Challenges of Fighting the Islamic State / Ed. M. Engelhart, S. Roksandić Vidlicka. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 255–268. [In English].
Panayiotides, N. (2020). The Great Syrian Civil War: A Realist Approach to the Syrian Conflict. The IUP Journal of International Relations, 1, pp. 59-70. [In English].
al-Ghadhawi, A. Al-Assad’s Strategy to Avoid Becoming a Puppet of Russia and Iran. New Lines Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://newlinesinstitute.org/state-resilience-fragility/al-assads-strategy-to-avoid-becoming-a-puppet-of-russia-and-iran/ [In English].
Naba, R. (2022). Syrie (2011-2021), Chronique d’une guerre sans fin. Villeurbanne: Golias Editions. [In French].
Zisser, E. (2022). At the End of the Day, Bashar al-Assad. Strategic Assessment, 1, pp. 101–107. [In English].
Syria. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/region/1559?lang=en [In English].
Syria Program. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://www.mei.edu/programs/syria-program [In English].
Syria. International Crisis Group. [Online]. Available from: https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/east-mediterranean-mena/syria [In English].
Pipes, D. (1992). Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition. 2nd ed. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. [In English].
Gentry, C. (2017). The Minor Sect Ruling Syria: Who are the Alawites?. International Review. [Online]. Available from: https://international-review.org/minor-sect-ruling-syria-alawites/ [In English].
Zelinskyi, A.L. (2022). Livan i Syriya – “seams'ki blyznyuky” Levantu: stan rechey na suchasnomu etapi [Lebanon and Syria – the “Siamese twins” of the Levant:a current situation]. Problemy vsesvitn'oyi istoriyi [Problems of World History], 3, pp. 98-113. [In Ukrainian].
Syrie, Constitutionde 1930. [Online]. Available from: https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/sy1930.htm [In English].
Davis H.M. (ed). (1953). The Constitution of Syria of September 5, 1950. Constitutions, electoral laws, treaties of states in the Near and Middle East. Durham (NC): Duke University Press, pp. 402-433. [In English].
Constitution of the Syrian Arabic Republic (1973). International Constitutional Law. [Online]. Available from: https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sy00000_.html [In English].
Fisk, R. Obituary: Suleiman Franjieh. The Independent. [Online]. Available from:https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-suleiman-franjieh-1535126.html [In English].
Bashar al-Assad’s inner circle. BBC News. [Online]. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20220327062345/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 [In English].
(1999). Bashar Assad Makes His International Debut. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, 11. [Online]. Available from: https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/9911_me5.htm [In English].
(2004). Syria Under Bashar (II): Domestic Policy Challenges. International Crisis Group, 11 february. [Online]. Available from: https://icg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/24-syria-under-bashar-ii-domestic-policy-challenges.pdf [In English].
Constitution of the Syrian Arabic Republic (2012). Syrian Arab News Agency. [Online]. Available from: http://www.sana.sy/ru/?page_id=1489 [In English].
Quilliam, N.M. (1997). Syria: adjusting to the new world order: Diss... PhD. Durham: Durham University. [In English].
Shama, N. The Arrogance of Power. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/84329 [In English].
Holliday, J. (2013). The Assad Regime:from Counterinsurgency to Civil War. Washington (D.C.): the Institute for the Study of War. [Online]. Available from: https://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/TheAssadRegime-web.pdf [In English].
Sapronova, M.A. (2022). Konstitutsionnoye razvitiye Sirii: mezhdu detsentralizatsiyey i avtoritarizmom [The constitutional development of Syria: between democratization and authoritarianism]. Moskva: Institut Blizhnego Vostoka. [In Russian].
Syria passes law to allow political parties. News / Al Jazeera. [Online]. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/7/25/syria-passes-law-to-allow-political-parties [In English].
Scepticism as Assad allows opposition parties. ABC News. [Online]. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-08-04/assad-allows-syrian-opposition-parties/2825136 [In English].
Lund, A. Syria’s Phony Election: False Numbers and Real Victory. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/55863?lang=en [In English].
Lund, A. Awaiting Assad’s Inauguration Speech. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/56155 [In English].
Assad wins Syrian election dismissed as farce by critics. BBC News. [Online]. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57277336 [In English].
Shaar, K., Akil S. Inside Syria's Clapping Chamber: Dynamics of the 2020 Parliamentary Elections. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://www.mei.edu/publications/inside-syrias-clapping-chamber-dynamics-2020-parliamentary-elections [In English].
Othman Agha, M. Coercive deprivation: Unraveling the Assad regime’s policy on domestic reconstruction. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://www.mei.edu/publications/coercive-deprivation-unraveling-assad-regimes-policy-domestic-reconstruction [In English].
Khaddour, Kh. The Assad regime's hold on the Syrian state. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_state1.pdf [In English].
Friedman, Y. (2010). The Nusayri-Alawi: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden: Brill. [In English].
(2000). Dossier: Maher Assad. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, 7. [Online]. Available from: https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0008_sd1.htm [In English].
Assad’s sister-in-law among Syrian regime’s fiercest critics. France 24. [Online]. Available from: https://www.france24.com/en/20140611-majd-jadaan-assad-syria-sister-law-critic [In English].
(2000). Dossier: Maj. Gen. Assef Shawkat. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, 6. [Online]. Available from: https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0007_sd1.htm [In English].
Farouk-Alli, A. (2014). Sectarianism in Alawi Syria: Exploring the Paradoxes of Politics and Religion. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 3, pp. 207–226. [In English].
Khaddour, Kh. Localism, War, and the Fragmentation of Sunni Islam in Syria. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/03_19_Khaddour_Syria_Islam_final.pdf [In English].
Makki, D. Syria’s economic freefall continues despite Arab League return. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-economic-freefall-continues-despite-arab-league-return [In English].
Yacoubian, K. A Latent Problem for Erdoğan. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/89856 [In English].
Zelinskyi, A. (2024). Levant na liniyi rozlamu dvokh svitiv [The Levant on the fault line of the two worlds]. Historia localis. Historia globalis. Studiyi na poshanu Andriya Kudryachenka [Historia localis. Historia globalis. Studies in Honor of Andrii Kudriachenko] / red. V. Tkachenko ta in. Kyyiv: DU “Instytut vsesvitn'oyi istoryi Natsional’noyi akademiyi nauk Ukrayiny”; Instytut istoriyi Ukrayiny Natsional'noyi akademiyi nauk Ukrayiny, pp. 224–233. [In Ukrainian].
Hassoun: Syria’s Controversial Grand Mufti. Fanack. [Online]. Available from: https://fanack.com/faces/features-insights/hassoun-syrias-grand-mufti~83850/ [In English].
Aleppo must be ‘exterminated’, says Assad’s top Sunni cleric Ahmad Badr al-Hassoun. Daily Mail. [Online]. Available from: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3568751/Aleppo-exterminated-says-Assad-s-cleric-issues-fatwa-against-civilians-eastern-parts-rebel-held-city.html [In English].
Syrian president abolishes position of Grand Mufti. News / Al Jazeera.[Online]. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/16/syrian-president-abolishes-position-of-grand-mufti [In English].
Young, M. An Excommunication in Damascus. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/85816 [In English].
Levit, M. The Role of the Islamic State in the Assad Regime’s Strategy for Survival. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. [Online]. Available from: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/media/4698?disposition=inline [In English].
Serwer, D., van Wijk K. Divided Syria: An examination of stabilization efforts and prospects for state continuity. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from:https://www.mei.edu/publications/divided-syria-examination-stabilization-efforts-and-prospects-state-continuity [In English].
Allsopp, H. (2014). The Kurds of Syria: Political Parties and Identity in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris & Company Limited. [In English].
Traboulsi, F. (2012). A History of Modern Lebanon. 2nd ed. London: Pluto Press. [In English].
Skorokhod, Yu.S. (2012). Diyal'nist' mizhnarodnykh mizhderzhavnykh orhanizatsiy iz vrehulyuvannya livans'koho konfliktu : navchal'nyy posibnyk [The activity of the international intergovernmental organizations for the settlement of the Lebanese conflict: the textbook]. Kyiv: Vydavnycho-polihrafichnyy tsentr “Kyyivs'kyy universytet”. [In Ukrainian].
Berti, B. (2014). The Ongoing Battle for Beirut: Old Dynamics and New Trends. Tel Aviv: Institute for national security studies. [Online]. Available from: https://www.inss.org.il/he/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/systemfiles/%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%A8%20111.pdf [In English].
(1997). The Lebanese Constitution. Arab Law Quarterly, 2, pp. 224–261. [In English].
Syria to Prop up Lebanon’s Leader for 3 More Years. Chicago Tribune. [Online]. Available from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/1995/10/12/syria-to-prop-up-lebanons-leader-for-3-more-years/ [In English].
Dagher, C. With Lebanese President's Second Term, Democracy Suffers Severe Blow. Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. [Online]. Available from: https://www.wrmea.org/1995-december/with-lebanese-president-s-second-term-democracy-suffers-severe-blow.html [In English].
Rabih, M. Emile Lahoud: The beginning of the end for Damascus in Lebanon. L'Orient Today. [Online]. Available from: https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1333683/emile-lahoud-the-beginning-of-the-end-for-damascus-in-lebanon.html [In English].
United Nations Security Council resolution 1559(2004).(S/RES/1559). [Online]. Available from: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/529421?ln=en [In English].
Abdelnour, Z.K. (2004). Syria and the Presidential Succession in Lebanon. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, 2/3. [Online]. Available from: https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0402_l1.htm [In English].
Khoury, G. Is Assad’s “Brother” About to be President of Lebanon? Medium. [Online]. Available from: https://medium.com/the-eastern-project/is-assad-s-brother-about-to-be-president-of-lebanon-eeec735bb45b [In English].
Khaddour, Kh. Borders Have Undermined Syrian Sovereignty. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/92037 [In English].
Tokmajyan, A. A Flashpoint Looms in Southern Syria. Carnegie Middle East Center / Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [Online]. Available from: https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/92053 [In English].
Nour, A.A. The Assad-Makhlouf spat: A complicated family affair. Middle East Institute. [Online]. Available from: https://www.mei.edu/publications/assad-makhlouf-spat-complicated-family-affair [In English].